Contributions of Ethnic Minorities in the UK to Global Trade through Business Enterprises

Introduction

Despite the case-based character of much that is written on migrant and minority enterprise in the broadest sense, within academic social sciences more generally it has been a relatively neglected field. Indeed, it has remained largely ‘terra incognita’ to all but the most specialised students of enterprise, ethnicity, migration, urban economy, or political sociology. This near silence on migrant and minority enterprise contrasts powerfully with levels of policy-involvement and public concern it often provokes, as well as with its such seemingly vast contemporary and historical importance for topics as disparate as global trade, social mobility and economic regeneration. There have been significant gaps in the understanding of the political economy of migrant and minority enterprise, as much more needs to be known of the relationships between these businesses, both to other local enterprise and to wider political-economic institutions (Sepulveda et al., 2008). There remains a similar deficit in the understanding of the global dimensions of ethnic minority economic activity and of migrant and minority entrepreneurship as a prelude or through route to other forms of economic activity on the part of both individuals and groups. In particular, there is virtually no literature on the relations between ethnic minority enterprises in Britain and the various Asian, African and Caribbean ‘diasporas’ with which they are simultaneously connected.

41 current ethnic minority communities in England and Wales have a population of over 10,000 people each, 16 of these minority groups run more than 10,000 businesses, 0.4% of the UK's population of over 15 year olds in employment are Asian or Black entrepreneurs in any activity, 6 Asian and 4 Black male entrepreneurs for every 100 White, Indian or Chinese male entrepreneurs. The Bangladeshi and Pakistani populations have 44% and 30% of their people living in poverty respectively compared with 29% across all ethnic groups. Bangladeshis have the lowest employment rate, only 20.7% of Bangladeshi women have a job. The median annual income for African Caribbean men is about £3000 less than the annual income for the UK average male worker (Sepulveda et al., 2008). Home Office figures suggest that around 4.9% of ethnic minorities are unemployed, Asian entrepreneurs have a 2.8% unemployment rate, this rises to 9.3% for Black entrepreneurs, and then falls to 7.3% for White people. Black entrepreneurs have a sting in the tail as they suffer the highest unemployment rate of any group, a massive 20%, 52.5% of Bangladeshi unemployed people were self-employed, and for Pakistani's this figure was 46.4%; both of these are higher than the figures for other groups. NFC data shows that more than 50% of Black enterprises entered business as a result of becoming unemployed. There are more Black self-employed people than Black people who are either directors or in the professions, traders have hardest time breaking into mainstream occupations, Bangladeshi's predict they would never become a director of a large company, Black people have the highest refusal rate for a bank loan, Asian businesses are less likely to receive a loan as a business grows, it is mainly all White and Black people who form partnerships and employ staff. Under 3% of Bangladeshi and Pakistani owned businesses have employees; Caribbean businesses fare little better at about 5%.

Over the past decade, the presence of ethnic minority entrepreneurs in British cities has become a fact of great significance affecting the wealth of communities created over generations. New migrant communities arrive in the UK and grow at a time of mass migration and radical changes in the global economy; and whilst doing so they often locate in the urban settings vacated by older established communities. Both responses point toward the increasingly complex socio-economic geography of British cities in the 21st century (Sepulveda et al., 2008). The combination of continuities and discontinuities, co-operatives and conflicts, reflects similarity and diversity among these communities in the way they have engaged with business and trade.

Without doubt, one of the most ready and well-documented responses of established ethnic minorities upon arrival has been the establishment of trade networks, focusing on a range of goods intensively associated with particular ‘diaspora’ – spices and vegetables for Indian traders, Chinese foods and decorations for Chinese traders – and located on high streets predominately serving co-ethnics. Examples of such trade are frequent across the UK, with new research particularly focused on entrenched communities forming more permanent global trading links with developing countries. This phenomenon might also be seen in a contested light, in which efforts at securing an economic presence (albeit often marginal) by newly arrived minorities find themselves attacked violently by ‘old’ working class Englishmen, who perceive the new enterprises – by virtue of their perceived ‘unfair’ competition – as unwelcome agents of economic change. It thus raises the question of the fundamental relationship between global trade, and specifically the movement of people and goods, and the localized, urban manifestations of that process.

Ethnic minority-owned businesses (EMBs) are recognised by the UK government and the EC as a growing sector of the economy. Ethnic minority entrepreneurs are often portrayed as exceptionally enterprising with a knack for commerce. It is suggested that ethnic minorities’ willingness to pool financial resources is a feature that puts migrants to small business at a competitive advantage in a cold economic climate. Migrants who are disappointed at the lack of job opportunities in the formal economy turn to the liquid economy as an alternative – viewing the cold economic climate thesis. Similar, minority and migrant entrepreneurs are seen as wandering as geese. Business ventures or activities are taken up in order to have a pool of funds to go back home to, the idea being not to become a permanent capitalist in the west but to earn enough to return back and start up a comfortable life back in India, Pakistan, or Bangladesh. It is hypothesised that this motivation to accumulate capital implies a higher tolerance for risk among Lave market enterprises.

Research and policy within the field of diversity and SMEs is characterised by a number of tensions. Perhaps the most significant of these the term ‘diversity’ encompasses a wide range of characteristics such as ethnic origin, gender, age, disability, and sexual orientation, all of which present particular challenges for small firms. At the same time small firm policy tends to be focused and targeted upon a relatively narrow set of objectives, particularly growth, innovation, and access to finance. Consequently, a policy focus that is attentive to the distinctive needs of ethnic minority businesses may risk diluting impacts in other areas of policy interest, whilst initiatives relevant to other minority groups may fail to confront the differentiated set of challenges facing ethnic minority businesses. In each instance, the potential for tension when addressing a dynamic, diverse, and multifaceted phenomenon, such as ethnicity, via policy measures that are inevitably rather blunt becomes all too clear.

Ethnic minorities in the UK tend to become more involved in the business world either because of limited employment opportunities or family cultural background. Whilst one understanding of being an ethnic minority is ‘non-white’, the immigrants are from different cultures. However, as the term ‘ethnic minority’ created and is used by the Government and other agencies, it refers to people originated from China, Africa, India, Bangladesh, and the Caribbean (Sepulveda et al., 2008). Ethnic minorities in general are underprivileged causing financial exclusion and lack of access to proper banking services. A significant percentage of people from these groups run small business in the retail and other sectors. For example, in Glasgow Priory quarters market area is dominated by Bangladeshi business owners, family running the shops (Ullah et al., 2017). There is no doubt these small shops have contributed significantly to global trade with b2b and b2c business operations. There is a long history of merchant links between Scotland and countries in Africa and Asia including Indonesia. Members of ethnic groups, who have chosen to settle in the UK, have direct business links with their native country as well as in European markets. Ties between businessmen based in Wales, UK and Indonesian business operators can be traced back to the mid 18th century when Geographical indications literally chased from Celebes and Manchester textile manufacturers stationing the transactions via the Dutch East India Company. Indonesia, the country famous for caffeinated products, still possesses a significant number of resources that can be exploited and exported to the UK and European markets.

Market Barriers

As the United Kingdom becomes an increasingly multicultural society, global diversity driven by flows of capital, population and trade from one world city-region to another is changing the urban landscapes of advanced industrial nations. New patterns of minority settlement, in localities and economies previously unfamiliar to ethno-politan populations, are generating visual and noticeable changes that present novel economic, ‘social’, and cultural challenges to the host locations (Sepulveda et al., 2008).

2.1 Emerging Economic Change This phenomenon is particularly evident in the new business enterprise activity of recently arrived diaspora communities from around the world. The current and recently arrived communities continue centuries of trade-led and other economic exchange between the UK and further a field. New settlers are adept at creating or adapting micro-economic niches and informal business opportunities; they are said to be active trades-people. Determined individuals act out traditions or patterns of exchange that they have long maintained within the old world’s national and regional specialties of goods, services, and adapt goods being sold in the UK.

2.2 Market Barriers It could be posited, taking the above reputed activity to be partially true, that ethnic and other trade-based communities contribute positive values to the goods and services, and even to the structure, of the UK’s economy. However manifest concern that arises in contest with positivist views, and in concert with the UK press portrayal of the ‘business activity experienced by the non-specialist public, is the extensive notion that in the domestic trade exploitative interests, defective structures and disadvantaged trade practices are being consolidated and that, over time, such dissonance between ‘normative’ and perceived trade activity may create deeper trade-enclave barriers.

The market practices and functionality of Manchester’s Pakistani/Indian ethnic business are investigated on the basis of a twenty-four months business survey, attempting therefore a useful contribution to a more evidence-based debate on plural domestic trade. For items sales, display and interior perceptions, scale and locational efficiency, and workforce stratification all point towards a structurally different, alienated and barrier type ethnic niche.

Niche Areas for Future Growth

This is a pertinent and challenging task given that these groups are highly diverse and exhibit features that have a different point of departure from the more established Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) business communities. While South and East Asian businesses have provided the key text on ethnic minority entrepreneurship over the past 20 years, since the 1990s, there has been substantial change, both in the migration waves populating, and the nascent enterprises transforming the UK's largest city. What has emerged is a highly diverse mix of micro multicultural entrepreneurs with rapidly rising rates of business formation and failure. This case study of two parallel ‘A8’ networks in the food sector suggests that routes into informal enterprise activities for emerging, new and/or previously non-existent minority groups are not only more complex and varied than conventional entrepreneurial theory would suggest, but also less ‘ethnic’ (Sepulveda et al., 2008). This phenomenon is particularly evident in the global ‘ethnic supermarket’ in contemporary London. The paper will address this challenge by exploring the current understanding of entrepreneurship among new and emerging ethnic minority business communities and the relationship between such enterprise activity and business networks. It will situate the emergence of new migrant business groups within such networks within the processes of labour market segmentation and regulatory frameworks, interrogating the sectoral and locational dimensions of some of the ‘niches’ in which they have been shown to engage. Three possible theoretical frameworks are suggested to help interpret this phenomenon (ethnic economy, the mixed embeddedness model and democratic business networking), arguing that it is a combination of the last two and misuse of the first that are the key forces driving the new trend. The paper concludes that policy requires a more nuanced understanding of such contemporary enterprise activity, and suggest action in areas of development support, improved regulations and a new wave of business partnerships between established and emerging entrepreneurs.

Technology and Innovation

The perceived contribution and impact of the new ethnic minority communities on global trade presents business and policy makers with significant challenges and opportunities. This phenomenon is particularly evident in the global ‘ethnic supermarket’ that is contemporary London. The paper will therefore seek to address this challenge by exploring the current understanding of the nature of entrepreneurship among new and emerging ethnic minority business communities and the complex relationship between such enterprise activity and the UK institutional business framework. The aim is to highlight the factors which currently inhibit consequential engagement with these diverse groups and to provide a basis for the development of policy strategies that can effectively engage with these groups, particularly with respect to the current interest in the possibilities for enabling transition from informal into formal enterprise activity.

Sustainable Business Practices

Some EM entrepreneurs and retailers are already giving increasing attention to the concept of corporate social Responsibility (CSR). Whilst there is a recognition of the importance of paying attention to the quality of the business environment in order to consolidate influence and enhance legitimacy in changing planning and retail systems, a number of companies regulated by the institutional framework are seeking practices of innovation for which their customers and employees profit from business participation in societal progresses. New responsibilities are seen in including the observation of strict ethics guidelines in sourcing activities for stores targeting a relatively small consumer base recruited worldwide.

Cultural and Creative Industries

Cultural and Creative Industries encompass the role of ethnic minority enterprises in the UK. This highlights the significance of the business rise of ethnic minorities in British cities, including retailing, wholesale, manufacturing, transport, property services, catering & hospitality, etc. (Sepulveda et al., 2008). This phenomenon, a product of the increasingly complex socio-economic geography in British cities due to globalisation and mass migration, is evident in contemporary London. Various studies focus on the entrepreneurship patterns among South Asian minorities, emphasizing tacit skill formation and the market incorporation of immigrants. Employees provide a mobile and flexible work force. Examination of mixed embeddedness highlights how migrant entrepreneurs navigate formal and informal economies.

Support for Minority-Owned Businesses

The Government recognises the diversity of the business population in the UK. Since 1997 a number of support initiatives have been developed targeting different sectors of the entrepreneurial population. The Foundation’s goals are to identify government funded projects that have been effective in helping minority businesses and to consider what more needs to be done.

The growth and success of a business can be largely determined by the owner/entrepreneur and their qualifications and experience, the owner can play a key role in areas of marketing and growth, and the owner’s width and depth of business knowledge can have an impact. Yet, the best SME development programmes for the owner’s qualifications and experience can also affect other process measures of growth. Business support policy is based on the assumption that support can increase the growth of small or medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). However, more than a decade of research in this area has produced mixed results. This is a matter of some concern, given that SMEs typically constitute a very large proportion of enterprises in most regional economies. Small business see growth as having occurred if turnover has increased, but the government have all the support programmes to encourage capital growth (Carter et al., 2013). Alternatively growth could be seen in terms of economic growth or job creation, but there are very few small businesses (SBs) with the potential to achieve significant growth in these areas.

BREXIT Implications

The UK’s departure from the EU, due on October 31st, 2019 will undoubtedly have far-reaching implications for changing the institutional and regulatory frameworks within which business operates in the future. Moreover, the UK international business community might be particularly affected (Filippaios, 2019). A common sentiment shared amongst international business has to do with the increased uncertainty related to policy changes that will follow in due time as a consequence of a change in access to the EU and its established national markets. The internationalisation literature focuses on the behaviour of micro-, small-, and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) across borders (Escaith, 2018). However, not enough emphasis has been made on the implications of Brexit to the internationalisation strategy of multinationals, as well as to the performance of export-led clusters and industries striving to increase and diversify their external engagement. Furthermore, it is important to pinpoint the specific implications of non-tariff measures affecting the current value network across wider Europe and their impact on the functioning of industrial clusters in the UK. Great Britain’s departure from the EU implies that specific non-tariff measures will also no longer apply to exports and imports between the remaining members of the EU and Britain. Great Britain, for example, operates as a nodal point in certain global value chains encompassing the EU-27, as well as in a number of global industries where industrial clusters have been developed in neighbouring regions. Considering the importance of UK multinational enterprises (MNEs) as drivers of internationalisation of the value chains (VCs), positive and negative effects should be more broadly assessed regarding the upcoming exit of Great Britain from Europe. This analysis, however, digs deeper into the specific non-tariff measures affecting the network of value chains in current place between the UK and the rest of the EU-27 economy, with regard to Britain’s departure from the EU.

Conclusions

Over recent years a great influx of new and emerging ethnic minority groups has become visible in Britain’s larger cities. These new business populations, coming from various overseas locations, have diversified the established structure of Britain’s ethnic minority business community. This noteworthy arrival of new entrepreneurs is expected to be a trend among many British cities. Moreover, this new business activity is taking place within the context of a wider intensive marker-led informal economy characterising an increasing number of domestic and new migrant communities (Sepulveda et al., 2008). Despite the existence of a growing body of literature addressing new so-called ‘emerging’ ethnic minority business communities (EMBCs), two fundamental interrelated dimensions of this phenomenon have been noted as still missing. The first is the lack of an explicit exploration of the variety and heterogeneity of these emerging business communities. The second is the uncertainty over the appropriate location and configuration within a part of the economy characterised by intensive informal operations.

In response EMBCs are seen to operate as a mix of formal and informal economic activity. For emerging business communities transition from informal market trading into formalised structures is often very problematic. One reason is that certain communities have been portrayed as essentially transient in nature, and consequently any necessary capital investments and other formal business development processes are perceived as inappropriate. However, in many cases economies are fundamentally market-led informal structures. In this economic context formal and informal activities are seamlessly co-located as an integral component of local economies, thereby enabling circulating networks of capital between formal enterprises and myriad informal service providers. Given that many new migrant communities become situated within these markets it is reasonable to assume that the preferred starting point for business activity is to engage in a largely market-based operation involving a whole variety of under-the-counter, rent-free and un-taxed activities, thereby ensuring a range of basic services locally provided as an intrinsic part of the market-place. This instability renders inappropriate many of the standard support, development and governance policy measures designed for artisan industries and other relocatable business models.

References

Sepulveda, L., Syrett, S., & Lyon, F., 2008. New ethnic minority business communities in Britain: challenges of diversity and informality for the UK business and policy frameworks.. [PDF]

Girling, R.A., 2022. Privileged core-state migrant entrepreneurs in Poland: an ethnic economy in reverse?. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 28(9), pp.31-51. emerald.com

Lynch, J., 2023. The political economy of health: bringing political science in. Annual Review of Political Science. annualreviews.org

Van der Straaten, K., Narula, R. and Giuliani, E., 2023. The multinational enterprise, development, and the inequality of opportunities: A research agenda. Journal of International Business Studies, 54(9), pp.1623-1640. reading.ac.uk

Jover, J. & Cocola‐Gant, A., 2023. The political economy of housing investment in the short‐term rental market: insights from urban Portugal. Antipode. wiley.com

Bates, T., Farhat, J. and Casey, C., 2022. The economic development potential of minority-owned businesses. Economic Development Quarterly, 36(1), pp.43-56. [HTML]

Fairlie, R. & Fossen, F. M., 2022. Did the Paycheck Protection Program and Economic Injury Disaster Loan Program get disbursed to minority communities in the early stages of COVID-19?. Small Business Economics. springer.com

Fairlie, R. W. & Fossen, F., 2021. … the $660 Billion Paycheck Protection Program and $220 Billion Economic Injury Disaster Loan Program Get Disbursed to Minority Communities in the Early Stages of …. nber.org

Kerr, S. P. & Kerr, W. R., 2021. Whose job is it anyway? Coethnic hiring in new US ventures. Journal of Human Capital. nber.org

Chen, Y.H., Glymour, M., Riley, A., Balmes, J., Duchowny, K., Harrison, R., Matthay, E. and Bibbins-Domingo, K., 2021. Excess mortality associated with the COVID-19 pandemic among Californians 18–65 years of age, by occupational sector and occupation: March through November 2020. PloS one, 16(6), p.e0252454. plos.org

Klein, A. & Smith, E., 2021. Explaining the economic impact of COVID-19: Core industries and the Hispanic workforce. unlv.edu

Ram, M., Jones, T., Doldor, S., Villares-Varela, M. and Li, H., 2022. What happens to refugee-origin entrepreneurs? Combining mixed embeddedness and strategy perspectives in a longitudinal study. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 45(16), pp.1-27. tandfonline.com

Lou, J., Qiu, Y. L., Ku, A. L., Nock, D., & Xing, B., 2021. Inequitable and heterogeneous impacts on electricity consumption from COVID-19 mitigation measures. Iscience. cell.com

Surangi, H., 2022. Are gender and immigration a double disadvantage? Exploring the experiences of Sri Lankan female immigrant entrepreneurs in London, United Kingdom. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies. researchgate.net

Opute, A.P., Madichie, N.O., Hagos, S.B. and Ojra, J., 2021. Entrepreneurship behaviour of African minorities in the UK:'Demystifying cultural influence'. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 44(3), pp.298-322. [HTML]

Siwale, J., Gurău, C., Aluko, O., Dana, L.P. and Ojo, S., 2023. Toward understanding the dynamics of the relationship between religion, entrepreneurship and social change: empirical findings from technology-savvy African immigrants in UK. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 186, p.122153. google.com

Korede, T., Al Mamun, A., Lassalle, P. and Giazitzoglu, A., 2023. Exploring innovation in challenging contexts: The experiences of ethnic minority restaurant owners during COVID-19. The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 24(1), pp.19-31. sagepub.com

Haq, M., Johanson, M., Davies, J., Ng, W. and Dana, L.P., 2024. Bourdieusian and resource-based perspectives on ethnic minority microbusinesses: The construction of a culture-induced entrepreneurship model. Journal of Small Business Management, 62(4), pp.1982-2015. tandfonline.com

Tomec, T. and Gričar, S., 2024. Risk language barriers in a globalized world: insights from female managers from Slovenia. Strategic Management-International Journal of Strategic Management and Decision Support Systems in Strategic Management, 29(2). smjournal.rs

Fitzsimmons, S., Özbilgin, M.F., Thomas, D.C. and Nkomo, S., 2023. Equality, diversity, and inclusion in international business: A review and research agenda. Journal of International Business Studies, 54(8), pp.1402-1422. brunel.ac.uk

Liu, Q., Colak, F. Z., & Agirdag, O., 2022. Celebrating culture and neglecting language: Representation of ethnic minorities in Chinese primary school textbooks (1976–2021). Journal of Curriculum Studies. researchgate.net

Zanvo, S., Djagoun, S.C., Azihou, F.A., Djossa, B., Sinsin, B. and Gaubert, P., 2021. Ethnozoological and commercial drivers of the pangolin trade in Benin. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 17, pp.1-11. springer.com

Vanore, M., 2022. Diasporas as actors of economic diplomacy. In Routledge International Handbook of Diaspora Diplomacy (pp. 156-168). Routledge. [HTML]

Dell'Osa, D. & Lippolis, S., 2024. Ragusan trade diaspora and the commerce of grain in sixteenth century: A network-institutional approach. Business History. [HTML]

Boonsuk, Y., Wasoh, F.E. and Fang, F., 2023. Native and non-native identity preferences in ELT hiring practices amid Global Englishes: The case of online job advertisements. Asia-Pacific Social Science Review, 23(1), p.11. dlsu.edu.ph

Baruah, B. & Biskupski-Mujanovic, S., 2023. Indigenous women's employment in natural resource industries in Canada: Patterns, barriers and opportunities. Women's Studies International Forum. [HTML]

Blackie, I. R., Tsholetso, T., & Keetile, M., 2023. Residents' attitudes, perceptions and the development of positive tourism behaviours amid COVID-19. Cogent Social Sciences. tandfonline.com

Agustina, V., Thamrin, N.R. and Oktoma, E., 2024. The role of English language proficiency in the global economy and business communication. International Journal Administration, Business & Organization, 5(4), pp.82-90. a3i.or.id

Lan, S., 2022. Between privileges and precariousness: Remaking whiteness in China's teaching English as a second language industry. American Anthropologist. wiley.com

Carter, S., Ram, M., Trehan, K., & Jones, T., 2013. Diversity and SMEs : Existing Evidence and Policy Tensions : ERC White Paper No.3. [PDF]

Raimi, L., Panait, M., Gigauri, I. and Apostu, S.A., 2023. Thematic review of motivational factors, types of uncertainty, and entrepreneurship strategies of transitional entrepreneurship among ethnic minorities, immigrants, and women entrepreneurs. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 16(2), p.83. mdpi.com

Orozco, M., 2022. The salience of ethnic identity in entrepreneurship: An ethnic strategies of business action framework. Small Business Economics. [HTML]

Tien, N. H., Ngoc, N. M., & Anh, D. B. H., 2021. Change of consumer behavior in the post Covid-19 period. Change. researchgate.net

Crick, J.M., Crick, D. and Chaudhry, S., 2023. Interfirm collaboration as a performance-enhancing survival strategy within the business models of ethnic minority-owned urban restaurants affected by COVID-19. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 29(3), pp.587-613. bcu.ac.uk

Hampton, S. & Whitmarsh, L., 2023. Choices for climate action: A review of the multiple roles individuals play. One Earth. cell.com

Paul, E., Fancourt, D. and Razai, M., 2022. Racial discrimination, low trust in the health system and COVID-19 vaccine uptake: a longitudinal observational study of 633 UK adults from ethnic minority groups. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 115(11), pp.439-447. sagepub.com

Radey, M., Langenderfer‐Magruder, L. and Brown Speights, J., 2021. “I don't have much of a choice”: Low‐income single mothers' COVID‐19 school and care decisions. Family Relations, 70(5), pp.1312-1326. nih.gov

Corrington, A., Fa‐Kaji, N.M., Hebl, M.R., King, E.B., Stewart, D. and Alao, T., 2022. The impact of organizational statements of support for the black community in the wake of a racial mega‐threat on organizational attraction and revenue. Human Resource Management, 61(6), pp.699-722. [HTML]

Bakker, R. M. & McMullen, J. S., 2023. Inclusive entrepreneurship: A call for a shared theoretical conversation about unconventional entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing. sciencedirect.com

Belitski, M., Guenther, C., Kritikos, A. S., & Thurik, R., 2022. Economic effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on entrepreneurship and small businesses. Small Business Economics. springer.com

Dörr, J. O., Licht, G., & Murmann, S., 2022. Small firms and the COVID-19 insolvency gap. Small business economics. springer.com

Engidaw, A. E., 2022. Small businesses and their challenges during COVID-19 pandemic in developing countries: in the case of Ethiopia. Journal of innovation and entrepreneurship. springer.com

Miklian, J. & Hoelscher, K., 2022. SMEs and exogenous shocks: A conceptual literature review and forward research agenda. International Small Business Journal. sagepub.com

Zutshi, A., Mendy, J., Sharma, G. D., Thomas, A., & Sarker, T., 2021. From challenges to creativity: enhancing SMEs' resilience in the context of COVID-19. Sustainability. mdpi.com

Kuckertz, A. & Brändle, L., 2022. Creative reconstruction: A structured literature review of the early empirical research on the COVID-19 crisis and entrepreneurship. Management Review Quarterly. springer.com

Howell, S., Kuchler, T., Snitkof, D., Stroebel, J., & Wong, J., 2021. Racial disparities in access to small business credit: Evidence from the paycheck protection program. ssrn.com

Babajide, A., Osabuohien, E., Tunji-Olayeni, P., Falola, H., Amodu, L., Olokoyo, F., Adegboye, F. and Ehikioya, B., 2023. Financial literacy, financial capabilities, and sustainable business model practice among small business owners in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Finance & Investment, 13(4), pp.1670-1692. [HTML]

Veleva, V., 2021. The role of entrepreneurs in advancing sustainable lifestyles: Challenges, impacts, and future opportunities. Journal of Cleaner Production. nih.gov

Kitole, F. A. & Genda, E. L., 2024. Empowering her drive: Unveiling the resilience and triumphs of women entrepreneurs in rural landscapes. Women's Studies International Forum. [HTML]

Ullah, F., Rahman, Z., & Thompson, P., 2017. Challenges and Issues facing Ethnic Minority Small Business Owners: The Scottish experience. [PDF]

Estevão, J., Lopes, J.D. and Penela, D., 2022. The importance of the business environment for the informal economy: Evidence from the Doing Business ranking. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 174, p.121288. [HTML]

Bu, J., Luo, Y., & Zhang, H., 2022. The dark side of informal institutions: How crime, corruption, and informality influence foreign firms' commitment. Global Strategy Journal. [HTML]

Makoni, L. and Tichaawa, T.M., 2021. Impact analysis of the COVID-19 pandemic on the informal sector business tourism economy in Zimbabwe. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure, 10(1), pp.165-178. ajhtl.com

Boafo, C., Owusu, R.A. and Guiderdoni-Jourdain, K., 2022. Understanding internationalisation of informal African firms through a network perspective. International Small Business Journal, 40(5), pp.618-649. sagepub.com

Naab, R. and Bans-Akutey, A., 2021. Assessing the use of e-business strategies by SMEs in Ghana during the Covid-19 pandemic. Annals of Management and Organization Research, 2(3), pp.145-160. goodwoodpub.com

Zhao, E. Y. & Yang, L., 2021. Women hold up half the sky? Informal institutions, entrepreneurial decisions, and gender gap in venture performance. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice. researchgate.net

Ibidunni, A.S., Ogundana, O.M. and Okonkwo, A., 2022. Entrepreneurial competencies and the performance of informal SMEs: The contingent role of business environment. In Entrepreneurship and the Informal Sector (pp. 28-50). Routledge. ntu.ac.uk

Miocevic, D., Arslanagic-Kalajdzic, M., & Kadic-Maglajlic, S., 2022. Competition from informal firms and product innovation in EU candidate countries: A bounded rationality approach. Technovation. unist.hr

Nawawi, M.N.B., Samsudin, H.B., Saputra, J., Szczepańska-Woszczyna, K. and Kot, S., 2022. The Effect of Formal and Informal Regulationson Industrial Effluents and Firm Compliance Behaviorin Malaysia. Production Engineering Archives, 28. sciendo.com

Jenkins, R., 2022. How China is reshaping the global economy: Development impacts in Africa and Latin America. [HTML]

Dau, L. A., Morck, R., & Yeung, B. Y., 2021. Business groups and the study of international business: A Coasean synthesis and extension. Journal of International Business Studies. springer.com

Kogut, C.S. and Mejri, K., 2022. Female entrepreneurship in emerging markets: challenges of running a business in turbulent contexts and times. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 14(1), pp.95-116. [HTML]

Fortin, C., Heine, J., & Ominami, C., 2023. Latin american foreign policies in the new world order: the active non-alignment option. [HTML]

Barnard, H., Amaeshi, K. and Vaaler, P.M., 2023. Theorizing international business in Africa: A roadmap. Journal of international business policy, 6(4), pp.389-407. springer.com

López-Morales, E., Ruiz-Tagle, J., Santos Junior, O.A., Blanco, J. and Salinas Arreortúa, L., 2023. State-led gentrification in three Latin American cities. Journal of Urban Affairs, 45(8), pp.1397-1417. cedeus.cl

Zapata-Cantu, L. & González, F., 2021. Challenges for innovation and sustainable development in Latin America: The significance of institutions and human capital. Sustainability. mdpi.com

Hwang, S. & Beauregard, T. A., 2022. Contextualising intersectionality: A qualitative study of East Asian female migrant workers in the UK. Human Relations. sagepub.com

Eales, J., Bethel, A., Fullam, J., Olmesdahl, S., Wulandari, P. and Garside, R., 2021. What is the evidence documenting the effects of marine or coastal nature conservation or natural resource management activities on human well-being in South East Asia? A systematic map. Environment International, 151, p.106397. sciencedirect.com

Işık, C., Ongan, S., Islam, H., Jabeen, G. and Pinzon, S., 2024. Is economic growth in East Asia pacific and South Asia ESG factors based and aligned growth?. Sustainable Development, 32(5), pp.4455-4468. [HTML]

Malik, A., Pereira, V., Budhwar, P., Froese, F.J., Minbaeva, D., Sun, J., Nguyen, A.T. and Xue, S., 2022. Multilevel relational influences on HRM practices: a cross-country comparative reflective review of HRM practices in Asia. Asian Business & Management, 21(5), p.745. nih.gov

Huang, Y., Li, S., Xiang, X., Bu, Y., & Guo, Y., 2022. How can the combination of entrepreneurship policies activate regional innovation capability? A comparative study of Chinese provinces based on fsQCA. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge. sciencedirect.com

El-Dassouki, N., Wong, D., Toews, D.M., Gill, J., Edwards, B., Orchanian-Cheff, A., Neves, P., Marshall, L.J. and Mucsi, I., 2021. Barriers to accessing kidney transplantation among populations marginalized by race and ethnicity in Canada: a scoping review part 2—East Asian, South Asian, and African, Caribbean, and Black Canadians. Canadian journal of kidney health and disease, 8, p.2054358121996834. sagepub.com

Kim, S. Y., 2025. Centrality and community: ASEAN in the regional comprehensive economic partnership. Political Economy of East Asian Economic Integration. oapen.org

Arslan, A., Kamara, S., Zahoor, N., Rani, P. and Khan, Z., 2022. Survival strategies adopted by microbusinesses during COVID-19: an exploration of ethnic minority restaurants in northern Finland. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 28(9), pp.448-465. emerald.com

Richter, J. I. & Patel, P. C., 2022. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the hours lost by self-employed racial minorities: evidence from Brazil. Small Business Economics. springer.com

Majekodunmi, T.A., Akintola, J.O., Aidonojie, P.A., Ikubanni, O.O. and Oyebade, A.A., 2022. Legal Issues in Combating the Scourge of Terrorism; Its Impact on International Trade and Investment: Nigeria as a Case Study. NIU Journal of Humanities, 7(3), pp.129-139. ijhumas.com

Kramskyi, S., Guo, X., Chmutova, I., Kryvobok, K. and Lozova, T., 2024. The race for global leadership and its risks for world instability: Technologies of controlling and mitigation. Research Journal in Advanced Humanities, 5(1), pp.178-191. odeku.edu.ua

Sovacool, B. K., Newell, P., Carley, S., & Fanzo, J., 2022. Equity, technological innovation and sustainable behaviour in a low-carbon future. Nature human behaviour. figshare.com

Le, T. T., 2023. Corporate social responsibility and SMEs' performance: mediating role of corporate image, corporate reputation and customer loyalty. International Journal of Emerging Markets. [HTML]

Cezarino, L.O., Liboni, L.B., Hunter, T., Pacheco, L.M. and Martins, F.P., 2022. Corporate social responsibility in emerging markets: Opportunities and challenges for sustainability integration. Journal of Cleaner Production, 362, p.132224. unive.it

Rosário, A. T. & Figueiredo, J., 2024. Sustainable entrepreneurship and corporate social responsibility: Analysing the state of research. Sustainable Environment. tandfonline.com

Dal Mas, F., Tucker, W., Massaro, M. and Bagnoli, C., 2022. Corporate social responsibility in the retail business: A case study. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 29(1), pp.223-232. wiley.com

Carroll, A. B., 2021. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) and the COVID-19 pandemic: Organizational and managerial implications. Journal of Strategy and Management. researchgate.net

Mahmud, A., Ding, D., & Hasan, M. M., 2021. Corporate social responsibility: Business responses to coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. SAGE open. sagepub.com

Du, S., El Akremi, A., & Jia, M., 2023. Quantitative research on corporate social responsibility: A quest for relevance and rigor in a quickly evolving, turbulent world. Journal of Business Ethics. springer.com

Vuong, T.K. and Bui, H.M., 2023. The role of corporate social responsibility activities in employees’ perception of brand reputation and brand equity. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering, 7, p.100313. sciencedirect.com

Asemah-Ibrahim, M.O., Nwaoboli, E.P. and Asemah, E.S., 2022. Corporate social responsibility in war ridden-zones of Russia-Ukraine from February to July 2022. GVU Journal of Communication Studies, 5(3), pp.1-14. academia.edu

Wickert, C., 2021. Corporate Social Responsibility Research in the Journal of Management Studies: A Shift from a Business‐Centric to a Society‐Centric Focus. Journal of Management Studies. wiley.com

Pramono, R., Sondakh, L.W., Bernarto, I., Juliana, J. and Purwanto, A., 2021. Determinants of the small and medium enterprises progress: A case study of SME entrepreneurs in Manado, Indonesia. The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business, 8(1), pp.881-889. koreascience.kr

Aldrich, H.E., Cater, J.C., Jones, T.P. and McEvoy, D., 2023. Business development and self-segregation: Asian enterprise in three British cities. In Ethnic segregation in cities (pp. 170-190). Routledge. [HTML]

Bolet, D., 2021. Drinking alone: local socio-cultural degradation and radical right support—the case of British pub closures. Comparative Political Studies. lse.ac.uk

Cooke, F.L., Dickmann, M. and Parry, E., 2022. Building sustainable societies through human-centred human resource management: Emerging issues and research opportunities. The InTernaTIonal Journal of human resource managemenT, 33(1), pp.1-15. tandfonline.com

Kusumaningtyas, R.O., Subekti, R., Jaelani, A.K., Orsantinutsakul, A. and Mishra, U.K., 2022. Reduction of Digitalization Policy in Indonesian MSMEs and Implications for Sharia Economic Development. JURIS (Jurnal Ilmiah Syariah), 21(2), pp.157-171. archive.org

Tuan, L.H.A., 2023. The entrepreneurial pathway of Vietnamese super-rich. The sources of their successful business performance. International journal of entrepreneurship and small business, 10, pp.1-17. researchgate.net

Mazzucato, M. & Collington, R., 2023. The big con: how the consulting industry weakens our businesses, infantilizes our governments, and warps our economies. [HTML]

Guerrero, M., Liñán, F., & Cáceres-Carrasco, F. R., 2021. The influence of ecosystems on the entrepreneurship process: a comparison across developed and developing economies. Small Business Economics. springer.com

Gustafsson, C. & Lazzaro, E., 2021. The innovative response of cultural and creative industries to major European societal challenges: Toward a knowledge and competence base. Sustainability. mdpi.com

Snowball, J., Tarentaal, D. and Sapsed, J., 2022. Innovation and diversity in the digital cultural and creative industries. In Arts, entrepreneurship, and innovation (pp. 187-215). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. springer.com

Ausat, A.M.A., Al Bana, T. and Gadzali, S.S., 2023. Basic capital of creative economy: The role of intellectual, social, cultural, and institutional capital. Apollo: Journal of Tourism and Business, 1(2), pp.42-54. mediadigitalpublikasi.com

Duxbury, N., 2021. Cultural and creative work in rural and remote areas: An emerging international conversation. International Journal of Cultural Policy. uc.pt

Lee, H. K., . Rethinking creativity: creative industries, AI and everyday creativity. Media. sagepub.com

Chaudhry, I.S., Paquibut, R.Y. and Tunio, M.N., 2021. Do workforce diversity, inclusion practices, & organizational characteristics contribute to organizational innovation? Evidence from the UAE. Cogent Business & Management, 8(1), p.1947549. tandfonline.com

Patrickson, B., 2021. What do blockchain technologies imply for digital creative industries?. Creativity and Innovation Management. [HTML]

Bansal, N., Karlsen, S., Sashidharan, S.P., Cohen, R., Chew-Graham, C.A. and Malpass, A., 2022. Understanding ethnic inequalities in mental healthcare in the UK: A meta-ethnography. PLoS Medicine, 19(12), p.e1004139. plos.org

Opute, A.P., Iwu, C.G., Khosa, R.M., Eresia-Eke, C.E., Hagos, S.B. and Irene, B., 2021. African immigrant entrepreneurship in the UK: The hidden hand of family influence on entrepreneurial orientation. up.ac.za

Asabuwa Ngwabebhoh, F., Saha, N., Saha, T. and Saha, P., 2022. Bio-innovation of new-generation nonwoven natural fibrous materials for the footwear industry: Current state-of-the-art and sustainability panorama. Journal of Natural Fibers, 19(13), pp.4897-4907. kocaeli.edu.tr

Hanson, G. H., 2021. Who will fill China's shoes? The global evolution of labor-intensive manufacturing. nber.org

Akram, S.V., Malik, P.K., Singh, R., Gehlot, A., Juyal, A., Ghafoor, K.Z. and Shrestha, S., 2022. Implementation of digitalized technologies for fashion industry 4.0: Opportunities and challenges. Scientific Programming, 2022(1), p.7523246. wiley.com

Jin, B. E. & Shin, D. C., 2021. The power of 4th industrial revolution in the fashion industry: what, why, and how has the industry changed?. Fashion and Textiles. springer.com

Ikram, M., 2022. Transition toward green economy: Technological Innovation's role in the fashion industry. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry. [HTML]

Lee, Y.A., 2022. Trends of emerging technologies in the fashion product design and development process. Leading edge technologies in fashion innovation: Product design and development process from materials to the end products to consumers, pp.1-16. [HTML]

Glonti, V., Manvelidze, R. and Surmanidze, I., 2021. The contribution of SME to regional economic development: On example of Adjara Autonomous Republic. European Journal of Sustainable Development, 10(1), pp.513-513. ecsdev.org

Almeida, F., 2021. Open-innovation practices: diversity in Portuguese SMEs. Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, 7(3), p.169. sciencedirect.com

Otman, K., 2021. Small and medium enterprises in the Middle East and North Africa region. International Journal of Business and Management. academia.edu

Dvorský, J., Bednarz, J. and Blajer-Gołębiewska, A., 2023. The impact of corporate reputation and social media engagement on the sustainability of SMEs: Perceptions of top managers and the owners. Equilibrium. Quarterly Journal of Economics and Economic Policy, 18(3), pp.779-811. ug.edu.pl

Enaifoghe, A. and Vezi-Magigaba, M.F., 2023. Conceptualizing the role of entrepreneurship and SME in fostering South Africa's local economic development. International Journal of Research in Business & Social Science, 12(4). [HTML]

Kaftan, V., Kandalov, W., Molodtsov, I., Sherstobitova, A. and Strielkowski, W., 2023. Socio-economic stability and sustainable development in the post-COVID era: lessons for the business and economic leaders. Sustainability, 15(4), p.2876. mdpi.com

Audretsch, D. B. & Guenther, C., 2023. SME research: SMEs' internationalization and collaborative innovation as two central topics in the field. Journal of Business Economics. springer.com

Beckmann, M., Garkisch, M. and Zeyen, A., 2023. Together we are strong? A systematic literature review on how SMEs use relation-based collaboration to operate in rural areas. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship, 35(4), pp.515-549. tandfonline.com

Challoumis, C. & Eriotis, N., 2024. A historical analysis of the banking system and its impact on Greek economy. Edelweiss Applied Science and Technology. academia.edu

Huang, L., Huang, Y., Huang, R., Xie, G., & Cai, W., 2022. Factors influencing returning migrants' entrepreneurship intentions for rural E-commerce: an empirical investigation in China. Sustainability. mdpi.com

Khan, T. & Emon, M. H., 2024. Exploring the Potential of the Blue Economy: A Systematic Review of Strategies for Enhancing International Business in Bangladesh in the context of Indo …. Review of Business and Economics Studies. cyberleninka.ru

Bürger, T. & Kleinert, S., 2021. Crowdfunding cultural and commercial entrepreneurs: An empirical study on motivation in distinct backer communities. Small Business Economics. springer.com

Azganin, H., Kassim, S., & Sa'ad, A. A., 2021. Proposed waqf crowdfunding models for small farmers and the required parameters for their application. Islamic Economic Studies. emerald.com

Varga, J., 2021. Defining the economic role and benefits of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises in the 21st century with a systematic review of the literature. Acta Polytechnica Hungarica. epa.hu

Alam, M. S., Rabbani, M. R., Tausif, M. R., & Abey, J., 2021. Banks' performance and economic growth in India: A panel cointegration analysis. Economies. mdpi.com

Gülay, A., 2024. ETHNOCULTURAL IDENTITY IN THE ABSENCE OF ETHNOLINGUISTIC VITALITY: A STUDY OF HEMSHIN HERITAGE COMMUNITIES IN TURKEY'S EASTERN …. Karadeniz Araştırmaları Enstitüsü Dergisi. dergipark.org.tr

Yagmur, K. & van de Vijver, F. J. R., 2022. Multidisciplinary perspectives on acculturation in Turkish immigrants: Identity, language and education across generations. [HTML]

Dikyurt, A. E., 2024. Going Back to Pre-conflict Identities: The Cypriot Diaspora in the United Kingdom. Diaspora Studies. researchgate.net

Aydın, S., 2021. The Role of Institutions on Political Involvement of the British Citizens of Turkey-Origin in the United Kingdom. Akademik Hassasiyetler. dergipark.org.tr

Solano, G., Schutjens, V., & Rath, J., 2022. Multifocality and opportunity structure: towards a mixed embeddedness model for transnational migrant entrepreneurship. Comparative Migration Studies. springer.com

Brieger, S. A. & Gielnik, M. M., 2021. Understanding the gender gap in immigrant entrepreneurship: A multi-country study of immigrants' embeddedness in economic, social, and institutional contexts. Small Business Economics. springer.com

Solano, G., 2021. The mixed embeddedness of transnational migrant entrepreneurs: Moroccans in Amsterdam and Milan. In Diaspora Governance and Transnational Entrepreneurship (pp. 109-127). Routledge. academia.edu

Sipahi Dongul, E. and Artantaş, E., 2023. Exploring the link between social work, entrepreneurial leadership, social embeddedness, social entrepreneurship and firm performance: a case of SMES owned by Chinese ethnic community in Turkey. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy, 17(3), pp.684-707. [HTML]

Filippaios, F., 2019. Impact of Brexit on the Internationalisation of SMEs in Kent. [PDF]

Escaith, H., 2018. Mapping the UK domestic and global value chains from a Brexit perspective. [PDF]

Xu, S., Lian, G., Song, M. and Xu, A., 2024. Do global innovation networks influence the status of global value chains? Based on a patent cooperation network perspective. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 11(1), pp.1-12. nature.com

Amighini, A., Maurer, A., Garnizova, E., Hagemejer, J., Stoll, P.T., Dietrich, M., Roy, R., Skowronek, A. and Tentori, D., 2023. Global value chains: Potential synergies between external trade policy and internal economic initiatives to address the strategic dependencies of the EU. European Commission. uniupo.it

Szyliowicz, J. & Zamparini, L., 2022. Freight transport security and the robustness of global supply chains. Transport Reviews. tandfonline.com

Sanguinet, E. R., Alvim, A. M., & Atienza, M., 2022. Trade agreements and participation in global value chains: Empirical evidence from Latin America. The World Economy. pucrs.br

Zamparini, L., 2022. A review of models for transport security and of their relevance for supply chains. Transport Reviews. [HTML]

Kanwal, A., Akram, A., & Ullah, F., 2024. English around the World: Exploring Current Debates and Issues in World Englishes. Harf-o-Sukhan. researchgate.net

Vivoda, V., Matthews, R., & McGregor, N., 2024. A critical minerals perspective on the emergence of geopolitical trade blocs. Resources Policy. researchgate.net

Karim, A. & Said, F., 2024. Discussion on Malaysia's globalization journey from resource-based economy to global player. Journal of Business and Economic Options. resdojournals.com

Khatib, S.F., Abdullah, D.F., Elamer, A., Yahaya, I.S. and Owusu, A., 2023. Global trends in board diversity research: A bibliometric view. Meditari Accountancy Research, 31(2), pp.441-469. brunel.ac.uk

Ma, Z. & Guo, Y., 2024. Leveraging intangible cultural heritage resources for advancing China's knowledge-based economy. Journal of the knowledge economy. [HTML]

Troell, M., Costa‐Pierce, B., Stead, S., Cottrell, R.S., Brugere, C., Farmery, A.K., Little, D.C., Strand, Å., Pullin, R., Soto, D. and Beveridge, M., 2023. Perspectives on aquaculture's contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals for improved human and planetary health. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 54(2), pp.251-342. wiley.com

Homer, S.T. and Lim, W.M., 2024. Theory development in a globalized world: Bridging “doing as the romans do” with “understanding why the romans do it”. Global Business and Organizational Excellence, 43(3), pp.127-138. wiley.com

Gao, J., 2023. Riding on the waves of transformation in the Asia-Pacific: Chinese migration to Australia since the late 1980s. In Reimagining Chinese Diasporas in a Transnational World (pp. 87-104). Routledge. [HTML]

Nunez, Y., Benavides, J., Shearston, J.A., Krieger, E.M., Daouda, M., Henneman, L.R., McDuffie, E.E., Goldsmith, J., Casey, J.A. and Kioumourtzoglou, M.A., 2024. An environmental justice analysis of air pollution emissions in the United States from 1970 to 2010. Nature communications, 15(1), p.268. nature.com

Felstead, A. & Reuschke, D., 2023. A flash in the pan or a permanent change? The growth of homeworking during the pandemic and its effect on employee productivity in the UK. Information Technology & People. cardiff.ac.uk

Blundell, R., Cribb, J., McNally, S., Warwick, R. and Xu, X., 2021. Inequalities in education, skills, and incomes in the UK: The implications of the COVID-19 pandemic. Institute for Fiscal Studies, pp.1-42. ifs.org.uk